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The cost of environmental damage in India would shave 4 percent off of the country's gross domestic product. Lost
productivity from death and disease due to environmental pollution are the primary culprits.
The government agency responsible for environmental affairs is the
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). Coping with India’s
industrial pollution is perhaps the agency’s top priority. MoEF
recognizes the need to strike a balance between development and
protecting the environment in administering and enforcing the
country’s environmental laws and policies. The government
heightened the Ministry’s powers with the passage of the 1986
Environment Protection Act. This act built on the 42nd amendment to
India's constitution in 1976 that gave the government the right to
step in and protect public health, forests, and wildlife. This
amendment however had little power as it contained a clause that
stated it was not enforceable by any court. India is the first
country in the world to pass an amendment to its constitution ostensibly protecting the environment. |
Industrial pollution
Fog due to air pollution |
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Air Pollution
There are four reasons of air pollution are - emissions from vehicles,
thermal power plants, industries and refineries. The problem of indoor air pollution
in rural areas and urban slums has assumed significant attention lately.
India’s environmental problems are exacerbated by its heavy
reliance on coal for power generation. Coal supplies more than half
of the country’s energy needs and is used for nearly
three-quarters of electricity generation. While India is fortunate
to have abundant reserves of coal to power economic development, the
burning of this resource, especially given the high ash content of
India’s coal, has come at a cost in terms of heightened public
risk and environmental degradation. Reliance on coal as the major
energy source has led to a nine-fold jump in carbon emissions over
the past forty years. The government estimates the cost of environmental degradation has been running at 4.5% of GDP in recent years.
The low energy efficiency of power plants that burn coal is a
contributing factor. India's coal plants are old and are not
outfitted with the most modern pollution controls. Given the
shortage of generating capacity and scarcity of public funds, these
old coal-fired plants will remain in operation for sometime. Power
plant modernization to improve the plant load factor, improvements
in sub-transmission and distribution to cut distribution losses, and
new legislation to encourage end user energy conservation were all
mentioned as part of the energy efficiency effort.
The government has taken steps to address its environmental
problems. As of now the use of washed coal is required for all power plants.
Vehicle emissions are responsible for 70% of the country’s
air pollution. The major problem with government efforts to
safeguard the environment has been enforcement at the local level, not with a lack of laws.
Air pollution from vehicle exhaust and industry is a worsening
problem for India. Exhaust from vehicles has increased eight-fold
over levels of twenty years ago; industrial pollution has risen four
times over the same period. The economy has grown two and a half
times over the past two decades but pollution control and civil
services have not kept pace. Air quality is worst in the big cities
like Kolkata,
Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, etc.
Bangalore holds the title of being the asthma capital of the country.
Studies estimate that 10 per cent of Bangalore’s 60 lakh population and over 50 per cent of its children below 18 years suffer from air pollution-related ailments.
CHENNAI: Exhaust from vehicles, dust from construction debris,
industrial waste, burning of municipal and garden waste are all on the rise in the city. So are respiratory diseases,
including asthma. At least six of the 10 top causes of death are related to respiratory disease, says Dr D
Ranganathan, director (in-charge), Institute of Thoracic Medicine.
Mumbai: Not only are levels of Suspended Particulate Matter above
permissible limits in Mumbai, but the worst pollutant after vehicular
emissions has grown at an alarming rate. The levels of Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter
(RSPM), or dust, in Mumbai’s air have continued to increase over the past three years.
The air pollution in Mumbai is so high that Mumbai
authorities have purchased 42,000 litres of perfume to spray on the
city’s enormous waste dumps at Deonar and Mulund landfill sites
after people living near the landfill sites complained of the
stench. The Deonar landfill site, one of India’s largest, was
first used by the British in 1927. Today, the festering pile covers
more than 120 hectares and is eight story's high.
These cities are on the World Health Organization's list of top
most polluted cities. Vehicle exhaust, untreated smoke, and untreated
water all contribute to the problem. Continued economic growth,
urbanization, and an increase in the number of vehicles, together
with lax enforcement of environmental laws, will result in further increases in pollution levels.
Concern with New Delhi's air quality got so bad that the Supreme
Court recently stepped in and placed a limit on the number of new car registrations in the capital.
The effects of air pollution are obvious: rice crop yields in
southern India are falling as brown clouds block out more and more sunlight. And
the brilliant white of the famous Taj
Mahal is slowly fading to a sickly yellow. In the famous “Tajmahal Case” a very strong
step was taken by Supreme Court to save the Tajmahal Case being polluted by
fumes and more than 200 factories were closed down. In the case of Shatistar of
1990, AIR 1990 SC 630 (pp.8 to 13), Supreme Court declared in a clear tone that
a citizen has right for a decent environment in his living area. |
Poison in the air due to
Power plants. In India, air pollution is estimated to cause, at the very minimum, 1 lakh excess deaths and 25 million excesses illnesses every year.
Poison in the air due to
vehicle emissions
The brilliant white of the
Taj
Mahal is slowly fading to a sickly yellow. In the famous “Tajmahal Case” a very strong
step was taken by Supreme Court to save the Taj Mahal Case being polluted by
fumes and more than 200 factories were closed down.
Multi-storeyed residential buildings stand behind an expanse of slums in Mumbai
Mumbai
authorities have purchased 42,000 litres of perfume recently to
spray on the city’s enormous waste dumps at Deonar and Mulund landfill sites
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River water Pollution
Fully 80 percent of urban
waste in India ends up in the country's rivers, and unchecked urban growth
across the country combined with poor government oversight means the problem is
only getting worse. A growing number of bodies of water in India are unfit for human use, and in the
River Ganga, holy to the country's 82 percent Hindu
majority, is dying slowly due to unchecked pollution.
New Delhi's body of water is little more than a flowing
garbage dump, with fully 57 percent of the city's waste finding its way to the
Yamuna. It is that three billion liters of waste are pumped into Delhi's Yamuna
(River Yamuna)
each day. Only 55 percent of the 15 million
Delhi residents are connected to the city's sewage system. The remainder flush
their bath water, waste water and just about everything else down pipes and into
drains, most of them empty into the Yamuna. According to the Centre for Science and Environment, between 75 and 80 percent
of the river's pollution is the result of raw sewage. Combined with industrial
runoff, the garbage thrown into the river and it totals over 3 billion
liters of waste per day. Nearly 20 billion rupees, or almost US $500 million, has been
spent on various clean up efforts.
The frothy brew is so glaring that it can be viewed on Google Earth.
Much of the river pollution problem in India comes from untreated sewage.
Samples taken recently from the Ganges River near Varanasi show that levels of
fecal coliform, a dangerous bacterium that comes from untreated sewage, were
some 3,000 percent higher than what is considered safe for bathing. |
Agara city's waste finding its way to the
River Yamuna |
Groundwater exploitation
Groundwater exploitation is a serious matter of concern today and legislations and policy measures taken till date, by the state governments
(water is a state subject) have not had the desired effect on the situation.
Plastic Pollution
Plastic
bags, plastic thin sheets and plastic waste is also a major source of pollution.
See in detail: Plastic
Bag Pollution in the country
Municipal solid waste
India’s urban population slated to increase from the current 330 million to about 600 million by 2030,
the challenge of managing municipal solid waste (MSW) in an environmentally and economically sustainable manner is bound to assume gigantic proportions.
The country has over 5,000 cities and towns, which generate about 40 million tonnes of MSW per year today.
Going by estimates of The Energy Research Institute (TERI), this could well touch 260 million tonnes per year by 2047.
Municipal solid waste is solid waste generated by households, commercial establishments and offices and does not include the
industrial or agricultural waste. Municipal solid waste management is more of an administrative and institutional mechanism failure problem rather
than a technological one. Until now, MSW management has been considered to be almost the sole
responsibility of urban governments, without the participation of citizens and other stakeholders. The Centre and the Supreme Court,
however, have urged that this issue be addressed with multiple stakeholder participation.
Cities in India spend approximately 20% of the city budget on solid waste services.
Pollution due to Mining
New
Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) on December 29,
2007 said mining was causing displacement, pollution, forest
degradation and social unrest. The CSE released its 356-page sixth
State of India’s Environment report, ‘Rich Lands Poor People, is
sustainable mining possible?’ According to the Centre for
Science and Environment ( CSE) report the top 50 mineral producing
districts, as many as 34 fall under the 150 most backward districts identified in the country.
The CSE report has made extensive analysis of environment
degradation and pollution due to mining, wherein it has said, in
2005-06 alone 1.6 billion tonnes of waste and overburden from coal,
iron ore, limestone and bauxite have added to environment pollution.
With the annual growth of mining at 10.7 per cent and 500-odd mines
awaiting approval of the Centre, the pollution would increase manifold in the coming years.
In Orissa state, in the next five to 10 years, Jharsuguda will be home to production of 3.1
million tonne aluminum. This, however, will generate 3,100 tonne of fluoride
every year. Similarly, the State is gearing up for power projects - mostly coal-based -
targeting 20,000 mega watt energy. This will require 3.2 lakh tonne of coal
daily which in turn can lead to generation of 1,200 tonne ash a day.
Besides, there is emission of sulphur dioxide. The emissions at Jharsuguda
alone will be higher than that of all refineries in India put together. Jharsuguda will also see 12 million tonne steel annually being
produced when the projects go on stream. This will mean generation of 20 million
tonne of solid waste every year.
In Jharkhand there are abundant coalmines, most of the coalmines are situated
in Hazaribag, Chatra, Palamau, Rajmahal, Dhanbad and Ranchi district. Mighty
Damodar River and its tributaries flow through these coalmines. Due to extensive coal mining and vigorous growth of industries in this area
water resources have been badly contaminated. The habitants have, however, been
compromising by taking contaminated and sometimes polluted water, as there is no
alternative source of safe drinking water. Thus, a sizeable populace suffers
from water borne diseases. Besides mining, coal based industries like coal washeries, coke oven plants,
coal fired thermal power plants, steel plants and other related industries in
the region also greatly impart towards degradation of the environmental equality and the human health.
Pollution due to biomedical waste
Pollution due to biomedical waste is likely to spread disease dangerous to life and making atmosphere
noxious to health. On February 27, 2009 Modasa’s in Gujarat deadly hepatitis-B trail has led investigators
to a major medical waste recycling racket in Ahmedabad’s own
backyard where a whopping 50 tonne biological waste, including syringes, needles, IV sets and vials, was impounded. This illegally procured waste stored in godowns could expose the city and the whole state to the threat of not just hepatitis-B but other deadly
infections spread through intravenal treatments. Usually such waste has to be segregated and destroyed in an
incinerator. But the huge quantity of waste found in the godowns were being probably repackaged and sold.
Delhi's air is choking with pollutant PM 2.5
PM 2.5 is only 2.5 microns in diameter is very very small particle. The diameter of a
human hair strand is around 40-120. Being so small, it escapes emission apparatus prescribed by Euro II and III. Any
kind of combustion, especially of vehicular origin, contains this particle. If PM 2.5 is not regulated it will ensure major health
hazards. The number of Asthma patients will rise and in future there may huge rise of lung cancer cases also. The toxic value of PM 2.5
is such that metals like lead present in the PM 2.5 get inhaled deeper into lungs which deposits there. The children are most
affected by depositing lead due to inhaling the poisonous air. The increasing
amount of PM 2.5 is like a poison in the air we breathe. Researchers believe particulates, or tiny particles of soot,
interfere with the respiratory system because they are so small they can be breathed deeply into
the lungs.
Toxic smog is set to engulf New Delhi once again this winter after a six-year respite because of the huge
number of new cars clogging the roads. New Delhi adds nearly 1,000 new cars a day to the existing four million registered in the city, almost twice as many as before 2000. Pollution levels are
up to 350 micrograms per cubic metre in 2006-2007 and the levels of nitrogen oxides
have been increasing in the city to dangerous levels, which is a clear sign of pollution
from vehicles. Of these it is the diesel cars that are responsible for the pollution.
Diesel- run vehicles constituted just two percent of the total number of cars on
Delhi's roads seven years ago compared to more than 30 percent today and a
projected 50 percent by 2010.Diesel is being increasingly used because it is a cheaper fuel.
Diesel emissions can trigger asthma and in the long run even cause lung cancer.
A survey by the Central Pollution Control Board and the All India Institute of Medical Sciences survey showed that a
majority of people living in Delhi suffered from eye irritation, cough, sore
throat, shortness of breath and poor lung functioning. One in 10 people have asthma in Delhi. Worse, the winter months bring
respiratory attacks and wheezing to many non-asthmatics who are old, who smoke,
have respiratory infections or chronic bronchitis. Across the national capital and its
suburbs, polluted air is killing people, bringing down the quality of life, and
leaving people feeling ill and tired.
Some studies show children are among the worst-affected by the dense haze that
often shrouds the city, and doctors frequently tell parents to keep their
children indoors when smog levels are particularly high. In a survey of almost 12,000 city schoolchildren late last year, 17 percent
reported coughing, wheezing or breathlessness, compared to just eight percent of
children in a rural area.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
India emits the fifth most
carbon of any country in the world. At 253 million metric tons, only
the U.S., China, Russia, and Japan surpassed its level of carbon
emissions in 1998. Carbon emissions have grown nine-fold over the
past forty years. In this Industrial Age, with the ever-expanding consumption of hydrocarbon fuels and
the resultant increase in carbon dioxide emissions, that greenhouse gas concentrations have reached levels causing climate change. Going forward, carbon emissions are forecast to
grow 3.2% per annum until 2020. To put this in perspective, carbon
emissions levels are estimated to increase by 3.9% for China and by
1.3% for the United States. India is a non-Annex I country under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and as such,
is not required to reduce its carbon emissions. An historical
summary of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil fuel use in
India is increasing rapidly and causes global warming.
All inhabitants of our planet have an equal right to the atmosphere,
but the industrialized countries have greatly exceeded their fair, per-capita share of the planet’s atmospheric resources and have induced climate change. The most developed countries possess the
capital, technological and human resources required for successful
adaptation, while in the developing countries, a large proportion of the population is engaged in traditional farming,
that is particularly vulnerable to the changes in temperature, rainfall and extreme weather events associated with climate change.
According to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol
, the most industrialized countries are mainly responsible for causing climate
change. Thus equity requires that they should sharply reduce their emissions in order to arrest further climate change and allow other countries access to their fair share of atmospheric resources in order to develop.
Pollution of Indian Seas
The first sophisticated Pollution Control Vessel to patrol the
seas for oil spills and other environmental exigencies is likely to be ready by October, 2008, Vice Admiral Rusi Contractor, Director-General, Indian
Coast Guard, said in the 11th National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan
(NOSDCP) preparedness meeting on April 23, 2008. Mr. Contractor said the proposed induction of at least three specialised vessels by
mid- 2009 would shorten the response time to an emergency. The Coast Guard chief highlighted the importance of enforcement of maritime laws. He said 90 per cent of trade was essentially sea-borne and substantial
numbers of vessels were old and un-seaworthy or single-hull vessels and raised the risk of significant pollution of Indian waters.
He said pollution remedy measures were being thought of following the various international conventions on environmental pollution that would
also include exhaust and greenhouse gas emissions from ships and energy efficiency certification.
He pointed out that none of 10 accidents involving vessels during 2007 in Indian waters had resulted in an oil spill.
NASA research findings
Latest research findings by NASA and Stanford University indicate
that aerosol pollution will slow down winds, impacting normal
rainfall pattern in tropical countries. The unique combination of
meteorology, landscape (relatively flat plains framed by the
Himalayas to the north and open ocean to the south), and the large
population maximize the effects of aerosol pollution in India.
The skies over North India are seasonally filled with a thick soup
of aerosol particles all along the southern edge of the Himalayas,
streaming southward over Bangladesh and the Bay of Bengal. Most of this air pollution comes from human activities.
Accumulation of aerosol particles in the atmosphere
also makes clouds last longer without releasing rain. This is
because atmospheric water forms deposits on naturally occurring
particles, like dust, to form clouds. But if there is pollution in
the atmosphere, the water has to deposit on more particles. Thus it causes lesser rain. |
Environmental Pollution and chronic diseases
In an Indo-US joint workshop, on September 05, 2008 at Chandigarh,
Prof S K Jindal said it has been
globally recognised that environmental factors, have important links with infectious as well as
non-infectious diseases of both acute and chronic nature. “The WHO estimates that 24 per cent of global disease burden and 23 per cent of
all deaths can be attributed to environmental factors. The burden is more on the
developing than the developed countries.” He said: “In developing countries, an estimated 42 per cent of acute lower
respiratory infections are caused by environmental factors.”
The major burden of these hazards is borne by the lungs. Bronchial asthma and
other allergies; chronic obstructive lung disease, respiratory infections
including tuberculosis and occupational lung diseases are some of the common
problems with a strong environmental risk which, account for a large disease
burden all over the world, including in India. “There is a need for extensive studies to gauge the effects of environmental
factors on the human health.”
According to New England Journal of Medicine, 2007, even a short exposure to traffic fumes can increase your chances of heart
disease, including heart attack. People who exercise in areas where there is heavy traffic may be especially at
risk, researchers say.
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Invasive alien species
Invasive alien species are species whose introduction and/or spread outside their natural habitats threatens biological diversity.
They occur in all groups, including animals, plants, fungi, bacteria and viruses, and can affect all types of ecosystems. They can directly affect human health. Infectious diseases are often traced to IAS imported by travellers or vectored by exotic species of birds, rodents and insects. IAS also have indirect health effects on humans as a result of the use of pesticides and herbicides, which pollute water and soil.
They may look harmless but are dangerous, mainly causing flu, allergies,
respiratory disorders and even infertility among humans and animals. Sometimes they manifest themselves as bird flu and at other times as foot-and-mouth disease and mad cow disease and lead to massive destruction of livestock populations. The biggest casualty of such species has been our rich biodiversity, and threats to food security.
MIKANIA MICRANTHA, is of the most prominent invasive aliens in India.
It is a major threat in many parts of the country, it grows 8 to 9 cm a day and muzzles small plants and chokes larger trees such as coconut and oil palm.
Parthenium: Parthenium
Hystrophorous a poisonous plant The parthenium now occupies 50 lakh hectares in the country and has become a major health hazard for people and animals.
PROSOPIS JULIFLORA: Vilayati
babul(prosopis juliflora) was introduced in India in the last century
as a very promising species for the afforestation of dry and degraded land. But over the years, it has emerged as a noxious invader that can grow in diverse
ecosystems, enable it to wipe out other plant species in its surroundings. |
Parthenium Hystrophorous |
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Anti-Pollution Uniform by Schools
The
hundreds of youngsters, ranging from age five to 18, who trooped into the Park Street campus
of Apeejay School, Kolkata faces covered in anti-pollution
masks in April is now a regular routine. “It is part of our school uniform now. It will protect us from the pollution that is killing the children of
Kolkata,” said a student. The anti-pollution mask has been made a part
of the uniform from this academic session by Apeejay School in a bid to safeguard the health of its students and boost attendance.
“We realised that a lot of our students had health problems that kept them away from school. Watery eyes, blocked noses or breathing problems, it all stems from pollution and we
realised that we needed to do something to help ourselves,”said the principal and administrator, Reeta Chatterjee. |
Students entering school in blue-and-white uniform, with a yellow mask covering mouth and nose. |
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The most polluted places in India
Vapi in Gujarat and Sukinda in
Orrisa is among the world's top 10 most polluted places, according
to the Blacksmith Institute, a New York-based nonprofit group.
Vapi : Potentially affected people: 71,000 -Pollutants: Chemicals and heavy
metals due to its Industrial estates.
Sukinda: Potentially affected people: 2,600,000.
-Pollutants: Hexavalent chromium due to its Chromite mines.
The most polluted cities in India
As many as 51 Indian cities have extremely high air pollution, Lucknow, Raipur, Faridabad and Ahmedabad topping the list. An environment and forest ministry report, released
on September 14, 2007 has identified 51 cities that do not meet the prescribed Respirable Particulate Matter (RSPM) levels, specified under the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS). In 2005, an Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) placed India at 101st position among 146 countries.
Taking a cue from the finding, the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) formulated NAAQS and checked the air quality, which led to the revelation about air quality in leading cities.
According to the report, Gobindgarh in Punjab is the most polluted city, and Ludhiana, Raipur and Lucknow hold the next three positions. Faridabad on the outskirt of Delhi is the 10th most polluted city, followed by Agra, the city of Taj
Mahal. Ahmedabad is placed 12th, Indore 16th, Delhi 22nd, Kolkata 25th, Mumbai 40th, Hyderabad 44th and Bangalore stands at 46th in the list.
The Orissa town of Angul, home to National Aluminium Company (NALCO), is the 50th polluted city of the country.
Emissions of gaseous pollutants: satellite data
Scientists and researchers from around the world gathered at ESRIN, ESA’s Earth
Observation Centre in Frascati, Italy, recently to discuss the contribution of
satellite data in monitoring nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere.
Using nitrogen dioxide (NO2) data acquired from 1996 to 2006 by the Global Ozone
Monitoring Experiment (GOME) instrument aboard ESA’s ERS-2 satellite,
Nitrous oxide emissions over India is growing at an annual rate of 5.5
percent/year. The location of emission hot spots correlates well with the
location of mega thermal power plants, mega cities, urban and industrial regions.
Emissions of gaseous pollutants have increased in India over the past two
decades. According to Dr Sachin Ghude of the Indian Institute of Tropical
Meteorology (IITM), rapid industrialization, urbanization and traffic growth are
most likely responsible for the increase. Because of varying consumption
patterns and growth rates, the distribution of emissions vary widely across India.
Is nuclear energy a solution of global warming?
India a country of 1.1 billion people currently gets only a fraction of its electricity
from nuclear power. Now the US atomic trade pact with India and an atomic energy
pact with France, India can fight global warming with clean nuclear energy. Nuclear energy has been recognized as a clean as
CO2 to the atmosphere after its reaction that could damage our environment. It's also known that nuclear energy has reduced the amount of greenhouse gas emission, reducing emissions of
CO2for about 500 million metric tons of carbon.
Despite the advantage of nuclear as a clean energy, the big concern is the waste resulted from nuclear reaction, which is a form of pollution, called radioactivity.
Nuclear waste is also a problem with nuclear power, in that spent nuclear fuel has no safe place to be stored right
now. Perhaps the greatest problem with nuclear power is the price to taxpayers. Each new nuclear plant built in the United States will cost at least one
billion dollars in federal subsidies.
Reduce pollutions: suggestions
Reduce tax on incomes and institute a tax on pollution was a suggestion
environmental crusader Al Gore had for India to tackle the issue of global warming effectively.
"Reduce tax on employees and employers and put a tax on pollution.
The more carbon dioxide one emits the more he pays in taxes," said Gore in an interactive session at the India Today Conclave here on
March 16, 2008. Replying to a question by Minister of State for External Affairs
Anand Sharma, Gore also suggested subsidising clean energy generation instead of carbon fuels like kerosene.
AGRA, December 12, 2008: Now Tulsi an ayurveda wisdom to help Taj Majal retain its pristine allure.
The forest department has come up with a quick-fix project -- plant a Tulsi drive in Agra. The recommended complexion care regimen, officers claim, has full backing from ancient texts which hold Tulsi to be the panacea for all problems from cosmic to cosmetic. The department is all set to launch the Tulsi plantation drive from January 2009. The public-private joint venture is expected to provide an eco-protection cover to sensitive Taj trapezium zone surrounding the 17th century monument as well as the other two world heritage monuments -- Agra Fort and Aitma-ud-Daula tomb. Tulsi
(Occinum sanctum) chosen for its anti-pollutant anti-oxidation and air-purifying properties making it an ideal ornamental shrub in the vicinity of the Taj
Mahal.
By the initiatives of the Delhi Metro and the Delhi Bicycling Club, which encourage people to use bicycles for short distances,
pedaling a cycle is increasingly and becoming routine for people. On bicycle, one can change destination without hassles and it’s cheap.Taking to pedal, Delhiites choose an eco-friendly saddle. |
ETP dicharge at Vapi
Worst 5 Indian power companies in terms of total emission of CO2
-NTPC LTD.
-Maharastra State Power Gen Co.
- Gujrat Urja Vikas Nigam
- Uttar Pradesh Rajya Vidyut
- Andhra Pradesh Power Gen Corp.
Nuclear power plants in India
Tulsi (Holy Basil) chosen for its
anti- pollutant anti-oxidation and air-purifying properties making it an ideal ornamental shrub in the vicinity of the Taj Mahal.
Choose an eco- friendly bicycle for short distance. |
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